Sulmeneva Glacier Retreat from Lakes, Novaya Zemlya

On February 21, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn Novaya Zemlya glacier retreat

Sulmeneva Glacier retreat in comparison of 1999 and 2016 Landsat images. Red arrow indicate the 1999 terminus position and yellow arrows 2016 terminus location.

Sulmeneva Bay is on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya and is the southern most extent of the continuous glaciation that extends along the northern half of the island. Here we examine an unnamed glaciers that terminates in a piedmont lobe near the shore of Sulmeneva Bay. The glacier flows south from a shared accumulation zone with glaciers of the Lednikovoye Lake area, which are retreating like all tidewater glaciers in northern Novaya Zemlya (LEGOS, 2006). The glacier in 1999 had a terminus front that measured 9.5 km. Carr et al (2014) identified an average retreat rate of 52 meters/year for tidewater glaciers on Novaya Zemlya from 1992 to 2010 and 5 meters/year for land terminating glaciers.Here we use Landsat images to examine changes from 1999 to 2016.

The terminus of the glacier in 1999 terminates in three substantial and two smaller proglacial lakes, the three larger lakes were all 1 to 1.5 km across. In 2000 the ablation season is further along and the lake levels somewhat higher, causing most of the expansion from 1999. By 2015 the glacier has retreated from the easternmost lake, which has also expanded to 2 km long and 1.7 km wide. In 2016 there is only a minor connection to the northeastern lake of the group that is now 2.1 km wide and 1.8 km long. Retreat of the terminus ranges from 600 m to 900 m along the terminus front that now measures 7.8 km, equating to an area loss of 4 square kilometers in the terminus lobe alone. A supralglacial lake has also formed at purple arrow in 2016 indicating substantial melting at an elevation of 400 m.

Red dots indicate the terminus of the glacier in 2000 Landsat.

Yellow dots indicate the terminus in 2015 Landsat.

State of Alpine Glaciers in 2016-Negative for 37th Consecutive Year

On February 17, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn climate change glacier retreat, glacier climate change, Glacier Observations

Figure 1. Global Alpine glacier annual mass balance record of reference glaciers submitted to the World Glacier Monitoring Service.

Each year I write the section of the BAMS State of the Climate on Alpine Glaciers. What follows is the initial draft of that with a couple of added images and an added paragraph.

The World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS) record of mass balance and terminus behavior (WGMS, 2015) provides a global index for alpine glacier behavior. Globally in 2015 mass balance was -1177 mm for the 40 long term reference glaciers and -1130 mm for all 133 monitored glaciers. Preliminary data reported to the WGMS from Austria, Canada, Chile, China, France, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Norway, Russia, Switzerland and United States indicate that 2016 will be the 37^th consecutive year of without positive annual balances with a mean loss of -852 mm for reporting reference glaciers.

Alpine glacier mass balance is the most accurate indicator of glacier response to climate and along with the worldwide retreat of alpine glaciers is one of the clearest signals of ongoing climate change (Zemp et al., 2015). The ongoing global glacier retreat is currently affecting human society by raising sea-level rise, changing seasonal stream runoff, and increasing geohazards (Bliss et al, 2014; Marzeion et al, 2014). Glacier mass balance is the difference between accumulation and ablation. The retreat is a reflection of strongly negative mass balances over the last 30 years (Zemp et al., 2015). Glaciological and geodetic observations, 5200 since 1850, show that the rates of early 21st-century mass loss are without precedent on a global scale, at least for the time period observed and probably also for recorded history (Zemp et al, 2015). Marzeion et al (2014) indicate that most of the recent mass loss, 1991-2010 is due to anthropogenic forcing.

The cumulative mass balance loss from 1980-2015 is -18.8 m water equivalent (w.e.), the equivalent of cutting a 21 m thick slice off the top of the average glacier (Figure 2). The trend is remarkably consistent from region to region (WGMS, 2015). WGMS mass balance based on 40 reference glaciers with a minimum of 30 years of record is not appreciably different from that of all glaciers at -18.3 m w.e. The decadal mean annual mass balance was -228 mm in the 1980’s, -443 mm in the 1990’s, –676 mm for 2000’s and – 876 mm for 2010-2016. The declining mass balance trend during a period of retreat indicates alpine glaciers are not approaching equilibrium and retreat will continue to be the dominant terminus response. The recent rapid retreat and prolonged negative balances has led to some glaciers disappearing and others fragmenting (Figure 2)(Pelto, 2010; Lynch et al, 2016).

Below is a sequence of images from measuring mass balance in 2016 in Western North America from Washington, Alaska and British Columbia. From tents to huts, snowpits to probing, crevasses to GPR teams around the world are assessing glacier mass balance in all conditions.

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Much of Europe experienced record or near record warmth in 2016, thus contributing to the negative mass balance of glaciers on this continent. In the European Alps, annual mass balance has been reported for 12 glaciers from Austria, France, Italy and Switzerland. All had negative annual balances with a mean of -1050 mm w.e. This continues the pattern of substantial negative balances in the Alps continues to lead to terminus retreat. In 2015, in Switzerland 99 glaciers were observed, 92 retreated, 3 were stable and 4 advanced. In 2015, Austria observed 93 glaciers; 89 retreated, 2 were stable and 2 advanced, the average retreat rate was 22 m.

In Norway, terminus fluctuation data from 28 glaciers with ongoing assessment, indicates that from 2011-15 26 retreated, 1 advanced and 1 was stable. The average terminus change was -12.5 m (Kjøllmoen, 2016). Mass balance surveys with completed results are available for seven glaciers; six of the seven had negative mass balances with an average loss of -380 mm w.e.

In western North America data has been submitted from 14 glaciers in Alaska and Washington in the United States, and British Columbia in Canada. All 14 glaciers reported negative mass balances with a mean loss of -1075 mm w.e. The winter of and spring of 2016 were exceptionally warm across the region, while ablation conditions were close to average.

In the high mountains of central Asia five glaciers reported data from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Russia. Four of five were negative with a mean of -360 mm w.e. Maurer et al (2016) noted that mean mass balance in the eastern was significantly negative for all types of glaciers in the Eastern Himalaya from 1974-2006.

Figure 2. Landsat images from 1995 and 2015 of glaciers in the Clephane Bay Region, Baffin island. The pink arrows indicate locations of fragmentation. Glaciers at Point C and D have disappeared.

Cook Ice Cap Outlet Glacier Retreat Lake Fromation, Kerguelen 2001-17

On February 10, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn glacier climate change, kerguelen island glacier retreat

Comparison of eastern outlet glaciers of the Cook Ice Cap in 2001 and 2017 Landsat images. Red arrow indicates a location of tributary separation. Pink arrow the 2017 terminus location of the northernmost glacier. Orange arrow the 2017 terminus location of the middle glacier. Yellow arrow tip the 2001 terminus position of glacier ending in newly formed lake. Green arrow the southernmost glacier 2017 terminus location.

On the east side of the Cook Ice Cap on Kerguelen Island a series of outlet glaciers have retreated expanding and forming a new group of lakes. Here we examine the changes from 2001-2017 along using Landsat imagery. Retreat of glacier in the region was examined by Berthier et al (2009) and is exemplified by the retreat of Ampere Glacier. Verfaillie et al (2016) examined the surface mass balance using MODIS data, field data, and models. They identified that accelerating glacier wastage on Kerguelen Island is due to reduced net accumulation and resulting rise in the transient snowline since the 1970s, when a significant warming began.

In 2001 at the red arrow is where the north tributary of a glacier ending in the northern most lake joins the main glacier. In the second lake is a peninsula, marked with point A that the glacier terminus is 1 km from. The next two glaciers terminating at the yellow arrow and beyond the green arrow do not have lakes at their termini. By 2014 the northern tributary has lost its connection with the main glacier terminating in the lake. The distance from the island for the middle glacier has increased. A lake is forming at the yellow arrow. For the third glacier a lake has formed at the green arrow. In 2017 the northern glacier has retreated to the pink arrow a distance of 750 m and is no longer terminating in the lake. The terminus at the orange arrow has retreated main terminus has retreated 900 m, expanding the lake it terminates in. The glacier at the yellow arrow has retreated into a new lake basin, with a retreat of 850 m since 2001. The terminus is thin and in the Google Earth image indicates some substantial thin icebergs have separated from the glacier. The green arrow marks the 2017 terminus of the southern most lake. This glacier has retreated 950 m leading to the continued expansion of a new lake. In just a decade we see the formation of two new lakes and the expansion of two others at the terminus of the eastern outlet glaciers of Cook Ice Cap, rapid landscape change driven by climate change.

2014 Landsat image of the eastern outlet glaciers of Cook Ice Cap.Red arrow indicates a location of tributary separation. Pink arrow the 2017 terminus location of the northernmost glacier. Orange arrow the 2017 terminus location of the middle glacier. Yellow arrow tip the 2001 terminus position of glacier ending in newly formed lake. Green arrow the southernmost glacier 2017 terminus location.

Terminus of three outlet glaciers from left to right the green arrow, yellow arrow and orange arrow terminus glacier on the Landsat images. The green arrows indicate places where the terminus or icebergs illustrates how thin the glacier ice is.

Lumding Glacier Rapid Retreat, Nepal 1992-2016

On February 8, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn Himalaya glacier retreat

Landsat comparison of Lumding Glacier terminating in Lumding Tsho. Red arrow on each Landsat image indicates 1992 terminus and yellow arrow 2016 terminus location.

Lumding Glacier, Nepal terminates in Lumding Tsho, a proglacial lake, in Dudh Khosi Valley in the Mount Everest region of Nepal. This lake poses a hazard for a glacier lake outburst flood in the Dudh Khosi valley. The lake expansion results from retreat of the Lumding Glacier. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) study examined the changes in Lumding Tsho from 1962-2000 and found the lake grew from 0.2 km2 in 1962 to 0.77 km2 in 2000. ICIMOD has an ongoing specific focus on assessing glacier lake outburst flood potential. The lake growth was the result of a retreat of 40 meters/year from 1976-2000 and 35 meters/year from 1962-2007, as noted in figure below from Bajracharya & Mool (2009). Here we update the changes to 2016 using Landsat imagery.

The lake begins at the end of the heavily debris covered Lumding Glacier draining east from Numbur Himal . Red arrow on each Landsat image indicates 1992 terminus and yellow arrow 2016 terminus location. The lake was 1675 meters long in 1992, 1950 meters long in 2000, 2350 meters long in 2009 and 2800 meters in 2016. This 1100 m retreat in 25 years is a retreat rate of 45 meters/year. The lake at 2.8 km in length now has an area of over 1 square kilometer. The glacier is fed largely by avalanching off the flanks of Numbur, blue arrows. King et al (2017) noted a mean mass balance of all 32 glaciers examined in the Mt. Everest region from 2000-15 was −0.52 water equivalent per year. The mean mass balance of nine lacustrine terminating glaciers, like Lumding Glacier, was 32 % more negative than land-terminating debris-covered glaciers. An additional problem for the glacier in the future is the retreat of the terminus of the tributary glaciers that avalanche onto the lower Lumding Glacier. The yellow letter A in the 2016 Sentinel images indicates the retreat of a feeder glaciers, 300 m since 1992. The lower section of the Lumding Glacier is heavily debris covered, noted best in Google Earth image, which insulates the underlying ice, reducing melting and retreat. This also indicates the avalanche source of much of the accumulating snow and ice. The increased distance to the feeding snow and ice slopes will reduce this input. The two blue arrows indicate plumes of glacier runoff into the lake. This glacier loss in mass driving the retreat is like that on Hinku Nup Glacier and Middle Lhonak Glacier.

A 2016 Sentinel image of Lumding Glacier with avalanche paths shown by blue arrows, and retreating tributary above Point A.

Google Earth image of Lumding Glacier front. This illustrates the debris cover and also meltwater plumes entering lake.

Hinku Nup, Nepal Downwasting Lake Development

On February 3, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn Himalaya glacier retreat

Hinku Nup Glacier in November 2016 Sentinel 2 image. Yellow arrows indicate three supraglacial lakes that have formed.

Hinku Nup is a valley glacier in the Dudh Khosi basin in the Mount Everest region of Nepal. The glacier is heavily debris covered in its lowest 4 km which is a low slope section extending from 5100-4900 m. In 1992 Landsat images there are only small supraglacial lakes, less than 100 m across on the glacier surface. In 2000 this remains the case on Hinku Nup proper, though a lake has formed at the terminus of a former tributary, northwest yellow arrow. By 2013 a lake has formed at the junction of Hinku Nup and Hinku Shar Glacier and a lake near the terminus of the glacier. By 2016 the terminus lake has expanded to a length of 600 m. There are a series of lakes that appear ready to coalesce that will extend the lake to 800 m in length, smaller yellow arrow. The lake at the junction of Hinku Nup and Hinku Shar is 200 m across in 2016. The proglacial lake at the terminus of the former tributary to Hinku Nup is now 500 m wide and 400 m long. The coalescing of the lakes near the terminus will lead to the formation of lake large enough to enhance melting and lead to calving. This should lead soon to a rapid retreat of the terminus, such as occurred on nearby Lumding Glacier. Glacier lakes have been inventories by ICIMOD, who found little change in glacier lake area from 2001 to 2009 but a sharp decrease in the number of lakes, primarily due to coalescing. The lake here lacks the clearcut moraine dam that exists on Thulagi Glacier and typifies glaciers that pose a Glacier lake outburst flood hazard.

King et al (2017) noted a mean mass balance of all 32 glaciers examined in the Mt. Everest region from 2000-15 was −0.52 water equivalent per year. The mean mass balance of nine lacustrine terminating glaciers was 32 % more negative than land-terminating, debris-covered glaciers. This mass loss is what has been driving the widespread glacier retreat in the region. Bajracharya and Mool (2009) noted the glaciers in the Mount Everest region retreated at a rate of 10–59 m/year from 1976-2009.

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Hindle Glacier Rapid Retreat Continues, South Georgia

On January 31, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn south georgia glacier retreat

Hindle Glacier comparison in 1989, 2015 and 2017 Landsat images. Red arrow is 1989 terminus, pink arrow the 2015 terminus and red arrow the 2017 terminus location.

South Georgia is south of the Polar Front preventing any truly warm season from persisting. The cool maritime climate leads to numerous glaciers covering a majority of the island and quite low equilibrium line altitudes. Hindle Glacier enters Royal Bay on the east coast of South Georgia Island. The British Antarctic Survey (BAS) has been the principal research group examining glacier change on South Georgia Island. Cook et al (2010) and Gordon et al (2008) have emphasized that there is a pattern island wide with many calving glaciers having faster retreat. Gordon et al., (2008) observed that larger tidewater and calving outlet glaciers generally remained in relatively advanced positions from the 1950’s until the 1980s. After 1980 most glaciers receded; some of these retreats have been dramatic and a number of small mountain glaciers will soon disappear. The change in glacier termini position have been documented by Alison Cook at British Antarctic Survey in a BAS retreat map, she identified that 212 of the Peninsula’s 244 marine glaciers have retreated over the past 50 years and rates of retreat are increasing. Here we examine Landsat imagery from 1989 to 2017 to identify the rapid retreat rate. NASA Earth has piggy backed on this assessment, with excellent imagery.

For Ross-Hindle the retreat was minimal from 1960 to 1989 with the glaciers joined In 1989 the glaciers joined 2.5 km from the terminus. The glacier spanned Royal Bay with a 3.2 km wide calving front. By 2002 the glacier front had retreated 800 m, but they were still joined. By 2008 the glaciers had separated due to an additional retreat of 1.4 km. The front was now retreating south up a separate embayment from Ross Glacier. The calving front in 2008 was 1.6 km wide. By 2015 further retreat led to the separation of Hindle from an eastern Tributary at the first prominent headland in the fjord, a 1.6 km retreat in seven years. By 2017 an additional 600 m of retreat had occurred with total retreat of 4.4 km in 28 years. This is a rate of over 150 m/year, which is an exceptional rate. The exceptional retreat rate of Hindle Glacier suggests that Ross Glacier acted as a pinning point stabilizing the terminus reach of the glacier. The low surface slopes in 2017 for the lowest 3 km of the glacier suggest the fjord head is at least 3 km south of the present terminus and the calving retreat will continue until the head of the fjord is reached. This location is close to the origin of the medial moraine that runs right to the glacier front currently. This embayment will open up new areas for Gentoo Penguins and elephant seals to immigrate into. Levy et al (2016) discuss the shift and dispersal of colonies in the region, that climate change is an important driver of.

Map of terminus retreat of Ross and Hindle Glacier from the BAS. Green Pin Locations are Gentoo Penguin colonies.

2002 Landsat image of Hindle Glacier. Red arrow is 1989 terminus and yellow arrow the 2017 terminus location.

Hindle Glacier 2016 Landsat image. Red arrow is 1989 terminus and red arrow the 2017 terminus location.

Location of South Georgia versus atmospheric and ocean circulation features (From South Georgia Future Science).

Columbia Glacier, Alberta 3 km Retreat 1986-2015

On January 25, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn Canada glacier retreat

Comparison of Columbia Glacier, which is the glacier flowing into the lake at top in 1986 and 2015 Landsat images. The red arrow is the 1986 terminus, yellow arrow the 2015 terminus position and purple arrow the tributary.

The Columbia Glacier drains the northwest side of Columbia Icefield into the Athabasca River in Alberta. The glacier in 1964 was 8.5 km long, by 1980 9.5 km long and in 2015 6.2 km long. The glacier drops rapidly from the plateau area over a major ice fall from 2400-1950 m. The icefall leads to the creation of a series of ogives during the 1960-1990 period. Ogives are annual wave bulges that form at the base of an icefall due to differential seasonal flow velocity. Ommaney (2002) noted that the glacier advanced over one kilometer from 1966 to 1980 the glacier completely filled the large proglacial lake that now exists. By 1986 retreat had again opened the lake. Tennant and Menounos (2013) examined changes in the Columbia Icefield 1919-2009 and found a mean retreat of 1150 m and mean thinning of 49 m for glaciers of the icefield. They noted that the fastest rate of loss on Columbia Icefield glaciers from 1919-2009 was during the 2000-2009 period.

In 1986 Landsat imagery the lake is 1000 m long. A 2004 Google Earth image indicates a step in elevation that is 500 m from the terminus. Glacier elevation lags the basal elevation change; hence the end of the lake is between 500 and 1000 m from the 2004 terminus. By 2015 the lake is 4000 m long indicating a 3000 meter retreat from 1986-2015. The rate of retreat has been less since 2004, 300 m, as the glacier approaches the upper limit of the lake basin. When the glacier terminus retreats to this step, the lake will no longer enhance retreat via calving and retreat rates will diminish. A further change is noted in the absence of ogives at the base of the icefall. As the icefall has narrowed and slowed the result has been a cessation of this process. The purple arrow indicates a tributary that joined the glacier below the icefall in 1986 that now has a separate terminus. The current terminus is still active with crevassing near the active front. The snowline in both August 2015 and July 2016 is close to 2800 m. A more detailed look at the 2016 mass balance conditions in the region just west of the glacier suggest Columbia Glacier had a more negative balance than in the Columbia River basin. With time left in the ablation season the snowline is at too high of an elevation to sustain strong flow through the icefall. The retreat is more extensive than the more famous and oft visited glaciers draining east from the icefield Athabasca Glacier and Saskatchewan Glacier.

A 2004 image of the glacier indicating the ogive band, and step where the upper limit of the lake likely occurs.

Sentinel image indicating the snowline at 2750-2800 m m on July 27, 2016.

Penny Ice Cap Northern Outlet Retreat, Baffin Island

On January 20, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn Canada glacier retreat

Penny Ice Cap Northern Outlet Glacier #43 in 1989 and 2016 Landsat images. Red arrow indicates 1989 terminus, yellow arrow 2016 terminus. Two peripheral ice masses are at Point A and B.

The primary northern outlet from the Penny ice Cap is an unnamed glacier, noted as #43 in the recent study by Van Wychen et al (2015). it is one of two large tidewater outlet glaciers on Baffin Island. Here we examine the response driven by climate change of this glacier from 1989 to 2016 using Landsat and Sentinel Imagery. Van Wychen et al (2015) observe that it is one of the two largest discharging glacier on the island and the Penny Ice Cap, with Coronation Glacier. They observed peak velocities of over 100 m/year, 20 km upglacier of the terminus, declining to less than 20 m/year in the lower 10 km of the glacier. Zdanowizc et al (2012) noted that in recent years the ice cap has experienced heightened melt, a longer melt season and that little retained snowpack survives the summer, that most of the retained accumulation is refrozen meltwater or superimposed ice. Geodetic methods indicate surface lowering of up to 1 m/year on all ice masses on Baffin Island and Bylot Island between 1963 and 2006 (Gardner et al.2012).

In 1989 the glacier terminated 1 km south of a terminal moraine peninsula that extends most of the way across the fjord. By 2014 glacier retreat is accompanied by the formation of two deltaics areas in front of the glacier, orange arrows in images below. It is not clear if these are islands, a shoal in the fjord or the head of the fjord. Retreat from 1989 to 2016 is 900 m on the west side of the terminus, 600 m on the east side. Two peripheral ice masses at Point A and B lack snowcover in 2016 and have lost area as well. Extensive transverse crevasses develop in the last 700 m upglacier of the terminus, indicating the force imbalance that enables and enhances calving at the ice front, yellow arrow. The reduced retained snowpack on the Penny Ice Cap is leading to reduced discharge and glacier retreat. With a high snowline in 2016 indicated by the lack of retained snowpack on ice masses at Point A and B, it is clear this trend is ongoing. The impact is less dramatic than those noted in the Clephane Bay area of Baffin Island.

Penny Ice Cap Northern Outlet Glacier in 2016 Sentinel 2 image. Yellow arrow indicates crevassing triggered by calving processes, orange arrows developing deltaics areas.

A 2014 Google Earth image of glacier front. Red arrow indicates 1989 terminus, yellow arrow 2016 terminus and orange arrows deltaic land areas building.

Erasmo Glacier, Chile Terminus Collapse

On January 17, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn chile glacier melt, chile glacier retreat

Erasmo Glacier, Chile, comparison in 1987 and 2016 Landsat images. The red arrow indicates the 2016 terminus and the yellow arrow the 1987 terminus location. Purple dots indicate the snowline and purple arrows locations of upglacier thinning.

Cerro Erasmo at 46 degrees South latitude is a short distance north of the Northern Patagonia Icefield and is host to a number of glaciers the largest of which flow northwest from the mountain. This is referred to as Erasmo Glacier with an area of ~40 square kilometers. Meltwater from this glacier enters Cupquelan Fjord, which is host to farmed salmon. This remote location allows Cooke Aquaculture to protect its farm from environmental contamination. Runoff from Erasmo Glacier is a key input to the fjord, while Rio Exploradores large inflow near the fjord mouth limits inflow from the south. Davies and Glasser (2012) mapped the area of these glaciers and noted a 7% decline in glacier area from 1986-2011 of Cerro Erasmo. The recent retreat of the largest glacier in the Cerro Erasmo massif indicates this area retreat rate has increased since 2011. Paul and Molg (2014) observed a more rapid retreat in general of 25% total area lost from glaciers in the Palena district of northern Patagonia from 1985-2011, a region at 43-44 south, north of Cerro Erasmo.

In 1987 Erasmo Glacier had a land based terminus at the end of a 6 km long low sloped valley tongue. The snowline was at 1100 m. In 1998 there is thinning, but limited retreat and the snowline is at 1250 m. In 2001 a lake has still not formed and retreat is less than 500 m since 1987. By 2013 a proglacial lake has formed and there are numerous icebergs visible in the lake. The snowline is at 1200-1250 m in 2013 at the top of the main icefall. In 2015 a large lake has formed and the snowline is at 1200 m again at the top of the icefall. By 2016 the terminus has retreated 2.9 km since 1987 generating a lake of the same length. The collapse is ongoing as indicated by large icebergs in the lake. The snowline in 2016 is at 1200 m at the top of the icefall The purple arrows indicate locations of expanded bedrock amidst the glacier since 1987. Each location is above 1000 m indicating upglacier thinning and reduced retained snow accumulation is driving the retreat. The west most purple arrow indicates where a glacier formerly was joined to the Erasmo Glacier and is now separated. The retreat is consistent with retreat documented at Reichert Glacier, Hornopirén Glacier and Cord.illera Lago General Carrera Glacier. The rapid retreat will continue until the head of the developing lake basin is reached.

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Recent Climate Change Impacts on Mountain Glaciers – Volume

On January 12, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn glacier climate change, Glacier Observations

Landsat Image of glaciers examined in the Himalaya Range: Chapter 10 that straddles a portion of Sikkim, Nepal and Tibet, China. Notice the number that end in expanding proglacial lakes.

This January a book I authored has been published by Wiley. The goal of this volume is to tell the story, glacier by glacier, of response to climate change from 1984-2015. Of the 165 glaciers examined in 10 different alpine regions, 162 have retreated significantly. It is evident that the changes are significant, not happening at a “glacial” pace, and are profoundly affecting alpine regions. There is a consistent result that reverberates from mountain range to mountain range, which emphasizes that although regional glacier and climate feedbacks differ, global changes are driving the response. This book considers ten different glaciated regions around the individual glaciers, and offers a different tune to the same chorus of glacier volume loss in the face of climate change. There are 107 side by side Landsat image comparisons illustrating glacier response. Several examples are below: in each image red arrows indicate terminus positions from the 1985-1990 period and yellow arrows terminus positions for the 2013-2015 period, and purple arrows upglacier thinning.

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There are chapters on: Alaska, Patagonia, Svalbard, South Georgia, New Zealand, Alps, British Columbia, Washington, Himalaya, and Novaya Zemlya. If you are a frequent reader of this blog you will recognize many of the locations. This updates each glacier to the same time frame. The book features 100 side by side Landsat image pairs illustrated using the same methods to illustrate change of each glacier. The combined efforts of the USGS and NASA in obtaining and making available these images is critical to examining glacier response to climate change. The World Glacier Monitoring Service inventory of field observations of terminus and mass balance on alpine glaciers is the another vital resource. The key indicators that glaciers have been and are being significantly impacted by climate change are the global mass balance losses for 35 consecutive years documented by the WGMS. The unprecendented global retreat that is increasing even after significant retreat has occurred in the last few decades (Zemp et al, 2015). Last, the decline in area covered by glaciers in every alpine region of the world that is documented by mapping inventories such as the Randolph Glacier inventory and GLIMS ( Kargel et al 2014)

Landsat Image of glaciers examined in the Svalbard: Hornsund Fjord Region: Chapter 6.

Landsat Image of glaciers examined in the South Georgia Island: Chapter 5.

Landsat Image of Mount Baker glaciers examined in the North Cascades, Washington: Chapter 8.

Landsat Image of glaciers examined in the Southern Alps of New Zealand S: Chapter 11.

Coronation Glacier, Baffin Island Retreat Leads to Building a New Island

On January 9, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn Canada glacier retreat3 Comments

A Landsat image from 1989 and a Sentinel 2 image from2016 illustrate the retreat of Coronation Glacier. Red arrows indicate the 1989 terminus and yellow arrows the 2016 terminus location. Purple numbers 1-5 indicate locations of tributary retreat or thinning. Purple numbers 6-9 are icecaps that did not retain snowcover in 2016.

Coronation Glacier is the largest outlet glacier of the Penny Ice Cap on Baffin Island. The glacier has an area of ~660 square kilometers and extends 35 km from the edge of the ice cap terminating in Coronation Fjord. On January 10, 2017 an Art Exhibit “Into the Arctic” by Cory Trepanier opens at the Canadian Embassy in Washington DC, the first stop in a two year North American tour. The exhibit features some amazing paintings of Coronation Glacier (see below). Here we examine the response driven by climate change of this glacier from 1989 to 2016 using Landsat and Sentinel Imagery. Van Wychen et al (2015) observe that it is the largest glacier from any of the Baffin Island Ice Caps with discharge greater than 10 Mt/year. They observed peak velocities of 100-120 m/year in the descent from the main ice cap into the main glacier valley. The velocity in the terminus section is ~30 meters/year. Syvitski (1992) noted that Coronation glacier retreated at an average rate of 12 meters per year from 1890-1988. Zdanowizc et al (2012) noted that in recent years the ice cap has experienced heightened melt, a longer melt season and that little retained snowpack survives the summer, that most of the retained accumulation is refrozen meltwater (superimposed ice). This has helped lead to firn temperatures at 10m depth near the summit of Penny Ice Cap to warm by 10 °C between the mid-1990s and 2011, (Zdanowizc et al (2012). Geodetic methods indicate surface lowering of up to 1 m/year on all ice masses on Baffin Island and Bylot Island between 1963 and 2006 (Gardner et al.2012).

Cory Trepanier Great Glacier painting, which is of Coronation Glacier.

In 1989 Coronation Glacier terminates at the red arrow, where the main outlet stream has created a pair of small deltaic islands on the northern side of the fjord. By 1998 the terminus has retreated from both islands, with the northern one already having disappeared. There is a plume of glacier sediments in the fjord from the main river outlet emanating from below the glacier is near the center of the glacier. There has not been significant retreat on the south side of the glacier terminus. In 2002 both islands are gone, most of the retreat is still on the northern side of fjord. The plume of glacier sediments in the fjord from the main river outlet remains near the center of the glacier. In 2016 a new deltaic island has formed near the southern edge of the margin, indicating a shift in the position of the main river outlet emanating from below the glacier, this is also marked by a large plume. The island formed is larger than those observed in 1989 or 1998. The nature of the loosely consolidated glacier sediments deposited in a fjord is to subside/erode after the sediment source is eliminated. The retreat of the glacier insures that this will occur soon to the island here. The size of the island gives it potential to survive, based on satellite imagery. A visit to the island would be needed to shed light on its potential for enduring. Cory Trepanier is hoping to return for more paintings, which will illustrate better the change to us than a satellite image can. Retreat from 1989 to 2016 has been 1100 m on the northern side of the fjord and 500 m on the south side of the fjord. The average retreat of 800 m in 27 years is over 30 m/year, much faster than the 1880-1988 period. Locations 1-5 are tributaries that have each narrowed or retreated from the main stem of the glacier.

Closeup of the Coronation Glacier terminus and the new island in 2016, Sentinel 2 image.

The other noteworthy change is the lack of snowpack retained at locations 6-9 in the 2016 Sentinel image on small ice caps adjacent to Coronation Glacier in 2016. This continues a trend observed in 2004, 2009, 2010 and 2012 and that Zdanowizc et al (2012) also noted, 2009 image below. The high snowline is also evident on Grinnell Ice Cap The driving force has been an increase in temperature and this has caused mass losses on ice caps throughout the Canadian Arctic (Gardner, et al. 2011) and (Sharp et al, 2011).

Sequence of Landsat images indicating terminus positions. Red arrow is the 1989 terminus position and yellow arrow the 2016 terminus position.

2009 Landsat image of Coronation Glacier indicating lack of retained snowcover on surrounding ice caps.

New Zealand Glacier Retreat will Impact Hydropower

On January 6, 2017May 1, 2024 By mspeltoIn New Zealand glacier3 Comments

Map of the Waitaki Hydropower system, from Meridian and images of the system taken by Jill Pelto January 2017.

Hooker Glacier, Mueller, Murchison and Tasman Glacier drain into Lake Pukaki, where water level has been raised 9 m for hydropower purposes. Classen Glacier, Grey Glacier and Godley Glacier drain into Lake Tekapo. Lake Tekapo and Lake Pukaki are both utilized for hydropower. Water from Lake Tekapo is sent through a canal to Lake Pukaki. Water from Lake Pukaki is sent through a canal into the Lake Ohau watershed and then through six hydropower plants of the Waitaki hydro scheme: Ohau A, B and C. Benmore, Aviemore and Waitaki with a combined output of 1340 MW. Meridian owns and operates all six hydro stations located from Lake Pūkaki to Waitaki. Below the Benore Dam is pictured,. Interestingly salmon have been introduced into the Waitaki River system for fishing near its mouth. Benmore Lake itself is an internationally renowned trout fishing spot, providing habitat for both brown trout and rainbow trout. The reduction of glacier area in the region due to retreat will reduce summer runoff into Lake Pukaki and this hydropower system, which will reduce summer flow in the Waitaki River.

Mueller Glacier has had a 1500 m retreat from 1990-2015, which will continue in the future as the lower 2 km section of the glacier is stagnant. Hooker Glacier retreated 1200 m from 1990 to 2015 and the lake expanded to 2300 m, with the retreat enhanced by calving. Tasman Glacier retreated 4.5 km from 1990 to 2015 primarily through calving into the expanding proglacial lake. Murchison Glacier has retreated 2700 m From 1990 to 2015. The rapid retreat will continue as 2010, 2013 and 2015 imagery indicate other proglacial lakes have now developed 3.5 km above the actual terminus. Classen Glacier has retreated 1000 m from 1990 to 2015 leading to expansion of the lake it ends in (Pelto, 2016). Godley Glacier has retreated 1300 m from 1990-2015 with an equal amount of lake expansion (Pelto, 2016). The expansion of debris cover is striking from 1990 to 2015 this indicates reduced flow from the accumulation zone. Grey Glacier has a heavily debris covered terminus that prevents accurate assessment of retreat. Overall these 7 glaciers make up the majority of the volume and area loss of New Zealand glaciers, which has been dominated by 12 large glaciers (Salinger and Willsman, 2008). The changes of 12 different glaciers have been examined in detail and are compile at the New Zealand Glacier Index. The loss of summer glacier runoff from each square kilometer of lower elevation glacier area that has disappeared is at least 50,000 cubic meters per day (Pelto, 2016). Given the 12 square kilometer loss in the terminus zone of just these seven glaciers, you have a 600,000 cubic meter per day loss in runoff that would be heading into the Pukaki-Takapo-Waitaki Hydro system. The retreat is driven by mass losses as indicated by the rising snowline observed by NIWA.

Map of the glaciers feeding Lake Pukaki and Lake Tekapo. M=Mueller, H=Hooker, T=Tasman, Mu=Murchison, Gr=Grey, Go=Godley and C=Classen. From Pelto (2016)